It’s a common theme, and the images that pop into mind may be of early humans during the Iron Age.

But according to Professor Seohyung Kim of Inha University, the history of iron precedes the history of life, and so historians need to look back to the beginning of the universe to fully understand the way iron has shaped humankind and its environment. She gave a special lecture called “History of Iron: Universe, Life and Human,” as part of the exhibition on October 13. Professor Kim studies history from a Big History perspective, or a multi-disciplinary approach to the study of the past that combines science, geology, human history and more to get a better, bigger picture of the past, present and future.

So here’s a look back, way back, into history to see what iron has to do with the history of man.

Stars Exploded and then Iron Existed

Where did iron come from? The stars. To be exact, large, dying stars. In the beginning of the universe, there were only 2 elements in existence- helium and hydrogen. New elements are only created when protons and neutrons fuse together and this requires a lot of heat.

The temperature of a star rises when it uses up all of its hydrogen atoms, and when it uses up all of its helium atoms, it collapses, emitting even more heat. This cycle repeats itself, creating new elements in the process until finally, iron in created. Elements with greater mass than iron are created in a supernova, or the death of a really, really big star.

A piece of meteoric iron formed by the heating and collapsing of a star sits on display at the National Museum of Korea.

So, why is this important?

The variety of elements created by exploding stars are what planets are made of, including earth, and iron makes up 35 percent of the earth’s entire mass.

Humans and their Complex Brains

After the formation of the earth, simple life forms appeared, and then eventually primates and homo sapiens. Humans are the most powerful species on earth, largely due to their complex brains that allowed for the development of language and through it, collective learning.

Iron-rich red meat was an important factor in human-brain development. (Source: Omicrono)

What’s interesting is that around 2.5 million years ago, humans started eating meat rich in iron and calories. Before this change in diet, early humans spent most of their scarce energy on chewing and digesting large amounts of vegetation. With the introduction of meat, their brains got larger as it is a muscle that requires 20 times more energy than muscles in other parts of the body. When humans started cooking meat with fire around 500,000 years ago, they consumed even greater amounts of meat, meaning humans could meet their dietary iron needs, and put their larger brains to use for things like agriculture.

Agriculture and Civilization

Collective learning led to some of the most critical developments is history, including agriculture, which developed after the end of the last ice age about 11,700 years ago, as human populations increased due to the fact that they were able to cook and consume meat. Further advancements in farming tools during the Iron Age led to an abundance of food and massive civilizations.

Some iron tools that made farming easier are on display at the National Museum of Korea.

Weapons Made Stronger with Iron

However, farming tools were not the only places where iron was applied. As communities developed around abundant agricultural centers, people decided they wanted more land, labor and power. So, cities waged war on one another with iron tools and armor that were fatally strong.

The Iron Age brought forth improvements in soldiers’ armor, and can be seen at the National Museum of Korea.

One vital invention in the evolution of weapons and tools alike was the wheel. The oldest artifact of the wheel is a potter’s wheel found in Mesopotamia and dates back to about 3500 BC. Then came the wooden wheel that were attached to chariots for effective warfare. Then finally, the Celtics applied iron rims on their chariots for added strength, durability and speed. Paired with iron swords and armor, wars became vastly efficient.

Iron wheels, like this one on display at the National Museum of Korea, enhanced existing wooden wheels.

After many years, the Chinese invented gunpowder triggering a new era of warfare. Iron was used to make rifles, cannons and other gunpowder machines to wipe out massive amounts of people at a time.

The invention of gunpowder led to new weapons such as these Iron rifles on display at the National Museum of Korea.

From Iron to Steel

After centuries of iron spearheading the development of new technologies and civilizations alike, a man named Henry Bessemer introduced a process to produce pure iron with a converter in 1856, known as the Bessemer Process. This invention would lead the way to the commercialization of steel and then eventually the industrial revolution near the end of the 18th century.

The steel industry was met with a rampant rise in steel demand during the second industrial revolution nearly a century later, with the introduction of electricity, gas and oil. Steel consumption continued to thrive into the third industrial revolution as it served the foundations for electronics, computers and automated production systems. As the world enters the fourth industrial revolution, steel will continue to be the bedrock of leading innovation and technology including electric vehicles, sustainable energy facilities and smart manufacturing factories.

Automated robots are part of what workplaces will look like in the fourth industrial revolution. (Source: Business Insider)

Looking back on history, the role and value of iron and steel in human development is indisputable. And to think, it all started with the death of a star.

Cover photo courtesy of BBC.

The fourth industrial revolution is heralded by big data, the internet of things, artificial intelligence, virtual reality and augmented reality, 3D printing and other technological innovations. It’s happening at rapid speed. The steel industry needs to keep up and take advantage of all that this revolution has to offer.

However, the industrial revolution did not happen overnight, and advancements in human development traces back to the Iron Age.  

The Iron Age and How it Impacted Civilization

After the Bronze Age was the Iron Age. People started using iron and steel for tools. This was a huge shift for the world, and helped improve nearly all spheres of life from the spread of written language to more effective agricultural practices. Iron offered more choice. People could forge this material into whatever they needed for tools, weapons, or ornaments and decor.

Blacksmiths would have used tools like this during the Iron Age.

Tools and weapons created during this era often used steel, which was a vast improvement on the bronze items from the previous age. Items made from steel were just as light as bronze, but stronger, so users were able to get more out of each item they created. The strength of these tools made it possible for farmers to plant and harvest more land, faster. It enabled people to sell or trade for livelihood.

The Iron Age is a great example of how the right materials can make life better for everyone.

The New Structure of Steel

As the world moves through the fourth industrial revolution, it is evident the same thing is happening. Instead of improvements in specific materials and tools, however, technology is changing things.

The steel production process can be completed autonomously if the fourth industrial revolution continues the way it is going. This means that manufacturers will be able to have very detailed and thorough control over production, using smart technology that will factor in every element from the surrounding environment to minute details of the material itself. The steel production process will be able to use real-time data to optimize every facet of operations, saving money and time.

Robot arms with artificial intelligence take part in the steel production process. (Source: Telenor Connexion)

The steel value chain is affected by changes in the provision of after-sales service, owing to new technology. Manufacturers can use smart technology to track how users interact with their completed products and offer better customer service as a result.

Again, real-time information comes into play, allowing steel companies to see exactly how orders are being created, fulfilled and used, as it is happening. Customer needs are met with ease and speed, all tracked and analyzed digitally.

Competition in the steel industry will be affected by this revolution, too. Competitors can see how other companies are using big data and automation to save money and offer a better customer experience, and use those details to revolutionize their offerings. Online steel transaction platforms make this transparency even more accessible, for companies and clients alike.

Implications on the Steel Industry

To keep up with this revolution, and make the most of it, steel companies need to understand the implications on the industry and plan for the future. New technology is only going to become more widespread, more common, and more advanced. Companies need to be ready to react.

Integrating technology and smart software is the ideal way for steel companies, and the industry at large, to take advantage of this new revolution and use it to create better products and better customer relationships.

To get an idea of how to best integrate new tech into existing steel practices, POSCO’s smart steel factory is a prime example, currently being tested at the Gwangyang Steel Mill. POSCO’s smart factories will collect and analyze all of the microdata generated in the steel production process, to determine the cause of every event that impacts quality or production in general.

An image of how POSCO’s Smart Factory will be run.

From facilities to energy and environment, to safety and conditions, the smart factory will monitor everything. And it will respond accordingly to make the best quality steel possible.

Self-learning artificial intelligence ensures that the process of steelmaking is carefully controlled, with adjustments made in real-time to directly and positively impact the result. The smart factories will use technology to fill the gaps where human capabilities are simply no match for software.

The world has come a long way since the Iron Age and through the various industrial revolutions. In the current fourth industrial revolution, steel companies have to take advantage of new technology and innovations by figuring out ways to apply them to steelmaking processes. POSCO has made this a top priority as it continues to research, educate and implement smart technologies to its production processes and materials and will lead the way for steel companies to follow through the fourth industrial revolution.   

Cover photo courtesy of Manufacturing Global.

But Mexican-American sculptor and furniture designer David Madero challenges this notion, using a torch as his paintbrush and an industrial-looking workshop as his studio to create dramatic, larger-than-life works of art.

Reinterpreting an Ancient Art

Welding can trace its historic roots back to ancient times. The earliest examples come from the Bronze Age and include small gold circular boxes. During the Iron Age, the Egyptians and people in the eastern Mediterranean area learned to weld pieces of iron together, while later on in the Middle Ages, the art of blacksmithing was developed and many items of iron were welded by hammering. It wasn’t until the nineteenth century that welding, as we know it today, was invented.

Madero reinterprets this bygone craft with his works, advancing welding to convey raw, artistic beauty. He converts gleaming pieces of steel into textured creations that range from the heroic to the grotesque. Spectacular, towering sculptures highlight themes of power and perseverance, as well as the strength of ordinary, working class men.

Yet, considering the sheer magnificence of his work, it might come as a surprise that Madero has never had any formal training in welding. Instead, he spent his childhood in his father’s workshop, surrounded by all sorts of welding equipment. As a result, using the tools became second nature to him.

In fact, much of his knowledge about welding was taught to him by his late father. Rogelio Madero, Madero told the American Welding Society in an interview, was a true pioneer of metal art who began using welding techniques for his artwork as early as the 1950s.

“He did truly amazing things with his trusty old oxyacetylene torch and beat-up MIG welder,” Madero noted. “I grew up trying to imitate him.”

From Function to Form

Drawing on inspiration from his father, Madero started his company, Madero / Co., in Torreón, Mexico in 2013. He began his career producing small sculptures, functional artwork, sculpted furniture and public art that he worked on by himself. As work requests started piling up, he hired a team of structural engineers, industrial designers and a sales and marketing team. Not before long, he became known as one of the foremost welding sculptors in the world.

Although Madero claims to have little technical experience, his use of artistic imagery is undeniable. Using a variety of processes and techniques such as oxyacetylene, stick, MIG, TIG, plasma cutting and a great amount of grinding and polishing, Madero and his team breathe life into spirited creatures, gestural figures and disputatious characters.

Each of his sculptures conveys an element of tension that creates a sense of palpable emotion.

Take one of Madero’s most notable pieces—the Mexican coat of arms. The majestic metal fixture incorporates an intricate golden eagle perched on a spiky cactus. Inside the eagle’s mouth dangles a snake revealing its sharp fangs. The public sculpture, which was installed in front of Mexico City’s Los Pinos—the official residence of the President of Mexico—is a wonderful example of welded art at its finest.

Another notable work is “Serpentina”—a 500-foot long steel monument that snakes along a wall Albuquerque International Airport. The project, which he worked on with his father, took 12 months to complete.

Many of his works’ subjects—metalworkers—boast the same drive and determination as the artist himself.

In fact, Madero believes that welders are not only some of the most trustworthy and hardworking people around, but that they positively contribute to society through their work. He also believes that the future of art will be transformed by those that take up welding as a profession, as many of them have no preconceived notions about what art should be.

In addition to his passion for welded art, Madero is also enthusiastic about teaching his craft to others. He has given welded art workshops in all corners of the world, eager to pass on his knowledge to those who are interested in learning more about this highly skillful form of art.

For those that can’t make it all the way to Mexico to see Madero’s art, the artist regularly posts photos and videos on his website and Instagram feed. These images not only showcase his stunning finished works, but also the grueling process involved in creating them.

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Masamune: Japan’s Legendary Swordsmith

Masamune is widely recognized as Japan’s greatest swordsmith—so much so that he has reached an almost legendary status. He created swords and daggers in the Soshu tradition between the late 13^th and early 14^th centuries, according to most historians. His swords are reputed for their superior beauty and quality—remarkable in an era when sword-making steel was often impure.

A legend tells of a test where he was challenged by Muramasa, another great swordsmith and one of his supposed students, to see who could make a finer sword. When both swords were finished, they tested the results by suspending the blades in a small creek. Muramasa’s sword cut everything that passed its way, but Masamune’s cut only leaves.

As Muramasa taunted his master for his sword’s ineptness, an onlooking monk approached and explained what he had seen. “The first of the swords was by all accounts a fine sword; however it is a blood thirsty, evil blade, as it does not discriminate as to who or what it will cut,” he said. “The second was by far the finer of the two, as it does not needlessly cut that which is innocent and undeserving.”

An award for swordsmiths called the Masamune prize is awarded at the Japanese Sword Making Competition to a swordsmith who has created an exceptional masterpiece.

John Fritz: Father of the American Steel Industry

Also known as the “Father of the U.S. Steel Industry,” John Fritz was an American pioneer of iron and steel technology. Born in 1822, Fritz began his steel-centric career at the tender age of 16. He became an apprentice in the trades of blacksmith and machinist—the latter involving repairs of agricultural and manufacturing machinery, such as the simple blast furnaces of the time.

He then went on to work in a rolling-mill, where he was responsible for all machinery. He discovered flaws in design and construction, which he then corrected either by his own inventions or by those which he adopted and introduced.

Fritz was among the first to introduce the Bessemer process to the United States. He also proposed open-hearth furnaces, among other improvements, thus paving the way for the expansion of the steel industry. The John Fritz Medal, established on Fritz’s 80^th birthday in 1902, is awarded annually by the American Association of Engineering Societies for scientific or industrial achievement in any field of pure or applied science.

Jan Liwacz: Holocaust Survivor and Master Blacksmith

Polish native Jan Liwacz was detained and arrested by the Nazis in 1939. After being kept in multiple prisons, he arrived at Auschwitz the following year. As a master blacksmith, he was assigned to a kommando, manufacturing the camp’s infrastructure elements such as gratings, handrails, banisters and chandeliers. Yet, he is perhaps most known for his work on the infamous wrought-iron sign spanning the entrance of the concentration camp.

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Bearing the contemptuous phrase “Arbeit Macht Frei” (“Work Sets You Free”), the gate itself was constructed under German orders by Polish political prisoners in the metalworking detail under Liwacz. It is believed that, in an act of defiance which went unnoticed, the prisoners reversed the B in “Arbeit,” making it appear upside down.

In 1944, he was transferred to Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp. After the liberation of the camp one year later, Liwacz trekked to Bystrzyca Kłodzka, Poland, where he started working at a local forge. He remained there as an artist blacksmith. After his retirement, he continued teaching artisan smithery in a local vocational school until he passed away in 1980.

Tony Swatton: Hollywood’s Renowned Propmaster

As a young boy, UK-born Tony Swatton passed his days cutting gemstones, making knives and silversmithing. When he was 17, Swatton attended a renaissance fair where he observed another blacksmith making armor. Soon thereafter, he made copies of the blacksmith’s equipment and used them to make a helmet. Just a decade later, he had refined his skills enough to open his Sword and the Stone workshop in North Hollywood where he began selling products to the likes of Euro Disney and Michael Jackson.

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His work attracted the attention of film corporations, and in 1991, he was employed to do his first film work on Hook, making swords. He has since become the mastermind behind some of Hollywood’s most recognizable props, working on more than 200 films including The Hunger Games and Pirates of the Caribbean franchises, as well as TV shows such as Sleepy Hollow and Revolution.

At his Burbank workshop, Swatton forges everything from historically accurate swords, to knives, to suits of armor, and hosts his own web series, Man at Arms.

Despite its thousand year old history, blacksmithing remains just as important today as it did in its early years. There’s no doubt that blacksmiths will continue to play a vital role across numerous industries as time goes on.

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Iron Age

During the Iron Age, semi-solid steel, produced by simply reducing iron ore, was forged to create farm implements and weapons. It was not until the mid-14th century that liquid iron was extracted directly from iron ore. This became possible because high temperatures were reached with furnace bellows operated by waterwheels.

For over 3,000 years, until replaced by steel after 1870, iron formed the material basis of human civilization in Europe, Asia and Africa.

The Industrial Revolution in England

In the late 18th century, during the Industrial Revolution in England, the invention of the steam engine by James Watt enabled the blasting of air into the blast furnace with a machine. This made the mass production of iron possible.

While the iron making process had been centered on the coke blast furnace for 300 years, the steel production process has made leaps and bounds in the past 160 years.

Around this time, the S-Martin open hearth furnace appeared. Though it required an external heat source and its productivity was relatively low, it permitted a wide range of iron resources and allowed easy control of the temperature and composition of molten steel.

The S-Martin open hearth furnace became the predominant method of producing liquid steel for about a century, until the appearance of basic oxygen steelmaking in the 1950s.

Basic Oxygen Steelmaking in the 1950s

Basic oxygen steelmaking and continuous casting processes developed in the early 1950s are considered the most innovative technologies in the history of the steel industry. The two processes replaced the open hearth furnace and the slabbing and blooming process in integrated steel mills.

The integrated steel mills have many advantages such as high productivity, cost competitiveness and the ability to produce a wide range of high-quality steel products. However, they require large-scale facility groups with complex process configurations across a large land area. Other disadvantages include the generation of large quantities of environmental pollutants from the use of fossil fuels.

In the late 1980s, major global steel companies and research institutes led research and development activities to address the disadvantages of basic oxygen steelmaking in integrated steel mills. The focus was placed on developing new processes to replace the existing blast furnace in iron making.

POSCO’s FINEX technology

FINEX technology is one such new development. POSCO began researching FINEX technology in 1992, and successfully launched a pilot plant with an annual production capacity of 600,000 tons in 2003. At present, two FINEX facilities are in operation at POSCO Pohang Steelworks. One plant, launched in 2007, has an annual capacity of 1.5 million tons, and the other, opened in 2014, has an annual capacity of 2 million tons.

POSCO also plans to build another FINEX technology facility soon, but this time it will be located outside of Korea. POSCO recently signed a memorandum of agreement with Iran to build a FINEX technology steel mill in the Middle East country.

FINEX combines the iron making processes of sintering, coke making and blast furnace into one process. It allows the direct use of low-grade fine ore and coal without preliminary processing. This process dramatically reduces the generation of air pollutants such as SOx, NOx and dust.

The changing environment of the global steel industry

The attention of global steel companies is now focused on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adjusting to the stricter global regulations on air pollution. These regulations are expected to expedite the restructuring of steel production facilities.

As a result, environment-friendly and innovative iron making technologies are expected to become commercialized soon. This would enable the use of low-grade raw materials across the globe. With the development and expanded utilization of new clean energy sources, steel production will depend increasingly on the utilization of economically produced steel, such as Direct Reduced Iron.

The future direction of the steel production process

According to the report, the steel production processes of the global steel industry are expected to move in three directions. First, large-scale seaside integrated steel works will continue to be highly competitive. Second, the expected increase in steel scrap availability and low-cost production of Direct Reduced Iron will increase the economic feasibility of procuring iron resources.

Third, inland regions in China, India and other large continent countries who are at a geographical disadvantage are expected to build simplified, compact, environment-friendly alternatives to outdated blast furnaces.

The three steel production processes are expected to coexist to produce low-grade raw materials and secure a smooth supply of steel products in inland regions where demand is forecasted to grow. This is expected to bring balanced and continuous growth for the global steel industry.

The steel industry has evolved and developed throughout history and thanks to the superior characteristics of steel materials and economic mass production it will continue to be an integral part of our lives for many more millennia to come.

Related Link:

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The Future of Manufacturing in Korea

China’s Era of New Normal and its Implications on the Steel Industry

The Myth and Reality of Global Steel Overcapacity

POSRI Releases First Edition of Bi-Annual English Journal “Asian Steel Watch”

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Throughout March, The Steel Wire will take an in-depth look at the people of steel. From stories of those who actively play a part in the steel industry to those who are directly affected by the products made from steel, we will bring you features that will illustrate just how significant the industry truly is.

Here’s a preview of what to expect this month:

The Women of Steel

Although the steel industry is often considered a “man’s industry,” more and more women are beginning to pursue jobs in this field. With grit, determination and strength, inside and out, these women now account for 20 percent of the salaried and managerial ranks, and 10 percent of hourly workers. In honor of International Women’s Day, we investigate the challenges that women endured over the years as they pursued work in the field.

Limbs of Steel: How Prosthetics are Powering Athletes with Disabilities

Today’s most driven athletes with disabilities are transforming prosthetics by turning their limbs into sport-specific power tools. From hands shaped like ice axes to blade runners for feet, these prostheses are smarter, lighter, stronger and more efficient than ever before, all thanks to steel. Meet some of the most inspiring athletes out there—men and women who have overcome physical challenges to cross finish lines at record speeds, power across swimming pools and climb the world’s biggest mountains.

The World’s Most Famous Blacksmiths

Blacksmithing is an ancient art that dates back to the Iron Age, when primitive man first began making tools from iron. Since then, there have been a select few blacksmiths who have particularly made their mark on the steel industry. Often times these smiths and their weapons are closely associated with famous figures in time. This article will take a look at some of the most famous of the lot.

Fishing for a Solution: How an Iron Fish is Treating Anemia

Anemia is the most common and widespread nutritional disorder in the world, affecting 2 billion people globally. But Canadian scientists have come up with an ingenious solution to help alleviate the problem. Meet the Lucky Iron Fish—a fish-shaped chunk of iron that’s put into a pot and boiled with lemon to give adults 75 percent of their daily recommended iron intake, and close to 100 percent for kids in nations where anemia is prevalent.

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Not only is reducing physical waste important to the future of the planet, reducing greenhouse emissions and renewable energy sources are just as important. Steel is useful in all three of these initiatives, and we’ll explore how.

In June, we shared with you a story covering the concept of underwater exploration and civilization. As the world becomes overpopulated, the threat of climate change increases and sea levels rise, humanity is seeking alternative living environments. Presently, some small underwater habitats and underground waterways exist, but what does the future hold for the possibility of underwater living? In a follow up to the previous story, we’ll understand how sustainable steel can impact this possible alternative.

Improving Oceans with Sustainable Steel

Primarily used to catch menhaden fish for the better part of the last decade, the MV Shearwater is now part of the Del-Jersey-Land reef, located 26 miles off the coast. The 176-foot vessel went down in 120 feet of water. It took about six hours to fully sink the ship after flooding the interior compartments.

The reef has many ships and other steel structures which are ideal for man-made reefs because of the cavities in them, a perfect place for fish and other sea life. Blue mussels, sponges, barnacles and soft corals have attached themselves to the structures, and the reef should be its own ecosystem in about a year.

Built in 1944 in Stockton, California, the steel-hulled Shearwater was meant to be an army transport vessel; however, the Army later turned it over to the Coast Guard to man the Pacific until 1950. It was then taken out of service until the early 1960s, transferred to a civilian naval crew surveying the Atlantic and then returned to the Army in the 1970s. Later, the MV Shearwater was sold as a menhaden fishing vessel.

In 2012, it was sold to a Virginia Beach shipyard that specializes in converting and sinking retired ships for artificial reefs.

Delaware has 14 artificial reef sites stretching from the Delaware Bay into the Atlantic Ocean. Starting in 1985, the state’s artificial reef network includes more than 1,000 sunken New York City subway cars, tugboats, smaller fishing boats and old, decommissioned military vehicles in addition to the Shearwater.

Coming Up

We’ve researched the rich history of steel, from the use of steel and iron in the vernacular to the Iron Age, the Industrial Age and steel’s presence in weapons and war. We’ve dug into the ways steel lives in modern cultures, from vibrant music to lunch deliveries and eating utensils. This month, we’ll delve deeper into how the sustainability of steel impacts the future.

Steel Frame Cycling: Steel vs Carbon: After the cycling community experienced a wave riders riding “fixies” (fixed gear) in the mid-2000s, the biking community has increased by almost 50 percent. With that growth, steel’s influence on the biking community is also rising. Often touted for is light weight, carbon fiber produces greenhouse gas emissions during production. Due to steel’s comfort, strength and cost-efficiency, cyclists are returning to steel frames.

Redefining Steel Slag: Slag is a non-metallic residue produced during the iron and steelmaking process. Slag is also the main by-product of steelmaking. Many companies and governments are figuring out ways to both reduce the production of slag and reuse the slag that is produced.

Steel Solutions in Wind Energy: Steel turbines produce wind energy, one of the world’s best renewable energy sources. Wind turbines made of steel convert kinetic energy into electrical power. Wind farms are increasing the supply of an important source of renewable energy and being used by countries around the world as part of a strategy to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels.

POSCO and Sustainability: Ever since its founding, POSCO has been committed to the environment and humanity. Understanding that sustainability is necessary for the future growth of communities, POSCO has developed a sustainable management system.

How POSCO Steel is Shaping the Future: POSCO steel is used in many initiatives to create a sustainable future. We’ll take a look into some of the buildings, products and other applications that POSCO steel has helped create.

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From Bronze to Iron
The adoption of iron and steel directly impacted changes in society, affecting agricultural procedures and artistic expression, and also coincided with the spread of written language. In historical archaeology, the earliest preserved manuscripts are from the Iron Age. This is due to the introduction of alphabetic characters, which allowed literature to flourish and for societies to record historic texts.
The beginning of the Iron Age differs from region to region. It is characterized by the use of iron in tools, weapons, personal ornaments, pottery and design. The differences from the preceding age of bronze were due to more advanced ways of processing iron. Because iron is softer than bronze, it could be forged, making design move from rectilinear patterns to curvilinear, flowing designs.

Iron smelting is much more difficult than tin and copper smelting. These metals and their alloys can be cold-worked, but smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron fragments found in present day Turkey (c. 1800 BC) show the use of carbon steel. These iron fragments are the earliest known evidence of steel manufacturing.
It is believed that a shortage of tin forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. Many bronze objects were recycled into weapons during this time. The widespread use of the more readily available iron ore led to improved efficiency of steel-making technology. By the time tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron replaced bronze tools permanently.
During the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly carbon alloys. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, but much stronger.

Iron Age: Daily Life
Before the Industrial Revolution, which would take place centuries later, the majority of people lived an agrarian lifestyle. Most people were farmers, and their lives revolved around the farming seasons. Societies consisted of villages where communities of families worked the land and made necessities for living by hand. All essentials were made or grown locally.
The production of iron tools helped make the farming process easier and more efficient. Farmers could plow tougher soil, making it possible to harvest new crops and freeing time for more leisure. New varieties of crops and livestock were introduced at different times over the span of the Iron Age.
More time also meant that people could make extra supplies to sell or exchange. Some farming families spent part of their time making salt, quern stones or iron. Most settlements have evidence of making clothes, woodworking and even blacksmithing.
Iron has been enhancing the quality of life for centuries. As more advanced technologies for processing iron were discovered, the world would experience the most rapid period of growth.

Just as civilizations experienced rapid advancement during and after the Iron Age, the fourth industrial revolution of today is changing the dynamics of markets and industries. Find out more about how companies should adapt and capitalize on the change, including steel companies.

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As one of the world’s leaders in steel manufacturing, POSCO has been integral in both the development of Korea’s economy, as well as the economies of its global business partners.

Steel has not only influenced lifestyles in practical ways, but has also made its mark culturally. Often referenced in pop culture (music and movies), it has also found its way into colloquial language.

The Language of Iron

Iron, a fundamental metallic element, is used as an adjective to describe strength.

Iron Grip

To have an iron grip means to have a tight grasp on something. It can also mean firmness or domination.

Ironclad

In the 1800s, military ships and vehicles were clad with iron to reinforce them against cannon ball attacks. Metaphorically used for something that cannot be broken, legal bindings can be described as ironclad.

Iron Fist

Iron fist is an expression used to describe a person’s strict control of a situation or a group of people. Historically, people often refer to sovereign leaders as “ruling with an iron fist.”

Iron Lady

Iron Lady has been used to describe female political leaders around the world. The term describes a strong-willed woman. The metaphor was most famously applied to Margaret Thatcher.

Steel Phrases

Iron is used to make an even stronger metal, steel. Like iron, steel is used metaphorically as an adjective to describe those who are strong-willed.

Steel Will

Frequently used as a positive characteristic, having a steel will is used to describe those who overcome adversity. Steel is often used to refer to one’s resolve, focus or determination.

Heart of Steel

Having a heart of steel can suggest one does succumb to emotional turmoil. This characteristic can be perceived as strength or coldness.

Steel Gaze

Having steely eyes means one has an intense gaze. Usually meant to describe those with strong determination, it can also mean their eyes reflect a hardness or coldness.

Coming Up

In October, with the theme of “History“ we will share stories focused on the history of steel as it drove agriculture and industry, enhancing lifestyles and connecting the world. POSCO’s long history as a leading steel manufacturer has played a big part of globalization. Stay tuned for the following stories.

POSCO’s Top Five Moments: The top moments from each decade of POSCO’s history

How POSCO Became POSCO the Great: From its beginning, how POSCO forged ahead to become Korea’s greatest steel producer

The Iron Age: Changing Daily Living: A historical view of the Iron Age and how it changed individual life

Steel History of Weapons and War: How use of iron impacted weaponry and war

The Industrial Revolution: Changing Society with Steel: How the Industrial Revolution changed life on a societal level, bringing about the beginning of globalization and urbanization